## (C) (cc by-sa) Wouter van Atteveldt, file generated juni 01 2016
Note on the data used in this howto: This data can be downloaded from http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/capital21c/en/xls/, but the excel format is a bit difficult to parse at it is meant to be human readable, with multiple header rows etc. For that reason, I’ve extracted csv files for some interesting tables that I’ve uploaded to https://github.com/vanatteveldt/learningr/tree/master/data. If you’re accessing this tutorial from the githup project, these files should be in your ‘data’ sub folder automatically.
To demonstrate R, we will use the data from Piketty’s ‘Capital in the 21st Century’
income = read.csv("data/income_topdecile.csv")
We’ve downloaded a csv file and read it into a new variable income
, which should appear in your environment list. You can click on the file to inspect it visually, but we can also use the head
command:
head(income, n=10)
## Year U.S. U.K. Germany France Sweden Europe
## 1 1900 0.41 0.47 0.45 0.46 0.46 0.46
## 2 1901 NA NA NA NA NA NA
## 3 1902 NA NA NA NA NA NA
## 4 1903 NA NA NA NA NA NA
## 5 1904 NA NA NA NA NA NA
## 6 1905 NA NA NA NA NA NA
## 7 1906 NA NA NA NA NA NA
## 8 1907 NA NA NA NA NA NA
## 9 1908 NA NA NA NA NA NA
## 10 1909 NA NA NA NA NA NA
As you can see, the values are NA (missing) for most rows, especially in the earlier period. Let’s throw out all data containing missing values using the na.omit
function:
income = na.omit(income)
head(income)
## Year U.S. U.K. Germany France Sweden Europe
## 1 1900 0.41 0.47 0.45 0.46 0.46 0.46
## 11 1910 0.41 0.47 0.44 0.47 0.46 0.46
## 21 1920 0.45 0.41 0.39 0.42 0.36 0.39
## 31 1930 0.45 0.39 0.42 0.43 0.38 0.40
## 41 1940 0.36 0.34 0.34 0.33 0.33 0.34
## 51 1950 0.34 0.30 0.33 0.34 0.29 0.32
Much better. Now, we can list the variables in the file using names
and get the numbers of rows or columns with nrow
and ncol
, respectively:
names(income)
## [1] "Year" "U.S." "U.K." "Germany" "France" "Sweden" "Europe"
nrow(income)
## [1] 12
ncol(income)
## [1] 7
We can also ask for a summary of each of the variables in the file using the summary
command:
summary(income)
## Year U.S. U.K. Germany
## Min. :1900 Min. :0.3300 Min. :0.2800 Min. :0.3100
## 1st Qu.:1928 1st Qu.:0.3550 1st Qu.:0.3225 1st Qu.:0.3275
## Median :1955 Median :0.4100 Median :0.3850 Median :0.3500
## Mean :1955 Mean :0.4025 Mean :0.3733 Mean :0.3642
## 3rd Qu.:1982 3rd Qu.:0.4500 3rd Qu.:0.4125 3rd Qu.:0.3975
## Max. :2010 Max. :0.4800 Max. :0.4700 Max. :0.4500
## France Sweden Europe
## Min. :0.3100 Min. :0.2200 Min. :0.2900
## 1st Qu.:0.3300 1st Qu.:0.2675 1st Qu.:0.3200
## Median :0.3350 Median :0.2950 Median :0.3400
## Mean :0.3692 Mean :0.3217 Mean :0.3575
## 3rd Qu.:0.4225 3rd Qu.:0.3650 3rd Qu.:0.3925
## Max. :0.4700 Max. :0.4600 Max. :0.4600
This lists the range, mean, etc. for each variable. We can select any column from a data frame using variable$column:
income$U.S.
## [1] 0.41 0.41 0.45 0.45 0.36 0.34 0.34 0.33 0.37 0.42 0.47 0.48
This gives a vector of numbers representing the different cells in that column. We can use various functions such as mean
, sum
, and length
to get information about a vector.
length(income$U.S.)
## [1] 12
mean(income$U.S.)
## [1] 0.4025
mean(income$Europe)
## [1] 0.3575
As perhaps expected, the mean income inequality in Europe is lower than than in the U.S.. Let’s do a t-test to see if the difference is significant:
t.test(income$U.S., income$Europe, paired=T)
##
## Paired t-test
##
## data: income$U.S. and income$Europe
## t = 2.6146, df = 11, p-value = 0.02406
## alternative hypothesis: true difference in means is not equal to 0
## 95 percent confidence interval:
## 0.007119254 0.082880746
## sample estimates:
## mean of the differences
## 0.045
So, with p<.05 we can conclude that the income distribution in the U.S. is more unequal than in Europe. Let’s make a simple plot of the income inequality in the U.S. and Europe (reproducing fig 9.8 on page 324)
plot(x=income$Year, y=income$U.S., type="l", ylab="Top decile income share", xlab="Year", ylim=c(0, 0.5))
lines(x=income$Year, y=income$Europe, col="red")
As you can see, income distribution in pre-WWI Europe is actually more unequal than in the U.S., but this is reversed during the 1910’s and inequality diverges after the 1970’s. Still, the lines are probably correlated:
cor.test(income$U.S., income$Europe)
##
## Pearson's product-moment correlation
##
## data: income$U.S. and income$Europe
## t = 1.4919, df = 10, p-value = 0.1666
## alternative hypothesis: true correlation is not equal to 0
## 95 percent confidence interval:
## -0.1949743 0.8037581
## sample estimates:
## cor
## 0.42667
So, although the correlation is moderate at 0.43, it is not significant (due to a lack of data points)